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Review Article
ARTICLE IN PRESS
doi:
10.25259/JQUS_9_2025

A Review on Biochemical Constituents, Pharmacological and Medical Uses, and Nutritional Value of Six Different Artemisia Species in Saudi Arabia

,
1Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, College of Agriculture and Food Science, Qassim University, Buraidah, Saudi Arabia.

* Corresponding author: Dr. Waheeba E. Ahmed, Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, College of Agriculture and Food Science, Qassim University, Buraidah 51452, Saudi Arabia. W.alfaki@qu.edu.sa

Received: , Accepted: ,
© 2026 Journal of Qassim University for Science - Published by Scientific Scholar
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This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial-Share Alike 4.0 License, which allows others to remix, transform, and build upon the work non-commercially, as long as the author is credited and the new creations are licensed under the identical terms.

How to cite this article: Ahmed W, Alshebrami RM. A Review on Biochemical Constituents, Pharmacological and Medical Uses, and Nutritional Value of Six Different Artemisia Species in Saudi Arabia. J Qassim Univ Sci. doi: 10.25259/JQUS_9_2025

Abstract

In the current review, we obtained seven varieties of Artemisia that grow in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. They differ in growing conditions, area distribution, and chemical components, but they have some similar bioactive components, such as gallic acid. We found that the leaf extract of A. herba-alba and A. scoparia has a higher yield (26.7 mg g-1 GAE) of gallic acid, followed by A. sieberi (96.79 µg g-1), A. judaica (64.29 µg g-1), A. monosperma (22.144 µg g-1), and A. absinthium (0.38 µg g-1); several studies indicate that it reduces the symptoms of rheumatism. Artemisinin and quercetin (15.31 µg g-1 - 18.7 mg g-1) are used for their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities, and can inhibit autoimmune disorders. Most species have antioxidant activity. A. absinthium studies, in vitro and in vivo, have revealed free radical scavenging, anti-microbial, anti-cancer, and anti-inflammatory activities, and have medical and pharmaceutical uses. A. monosperma is used to treat parasitic worms, and A. sieberi is used to treat gangrenous ulcers and infectious ulcers. Artemisia species are allowed by the Saudi Food and Drug Authority in permitted quantities. A. monosperma’s acute toxicity is up to 6.1 g kg-1. In this review, we will mention biochemical constituents, pharmacological and medical uses, and nutritional value of six different Artemisia species in Saudi Arabia. The seventh has been due to a lack of scientific research.

Keywords

Antioxidant
Artemisia
Gallic acid
Quercetin
Saudi Arabia

INTRODUCTION

Humans have long used aromatic plants as food, flavorings, and medicines to cure a variety of diseases. They are also regarded as primary materials in a variety of businesses, such as those that prepare pharmaceuticals and fragrances. Worldwide, the use of plants and the volatile oils they produce for aromatherapy has been found to have significant economic benefits.[1]

The genus Artemisia L. is indigenous to temperate Asia (northern temperate zones) and belongs to the Asteraceae family, which is predominantly found in Asia, North America, and Europe. Artemisia species are currently attracting attention for their bioactive compounds and their importance as medicinal plants, for the production of essential oils (EO’s), biological activity, chemical variety, and cosmetic goods. For instance, gangrenous and infectious ulcers, inflammations, and malaria are among the conditions in which the extract of the shoots, leaves, and flowers of the Artemisia species is historically employed. In addition, the oil extracted from the Artemisia species has been used to treat infectious ulcers that are nearly impossible to cure and has gained notoriety for its insecticidal, anticancer, antibacterial, and anti-malaria properties. The Artemisia species is also widely utilized in the manufacturing of cosmetics.[2]

The genus Artemisia has 200 species, all belonging to the Asteraceae (Compositae) family. These plants are often little aromatic shrubs or herbs that are found and thrive in arid regions. Comprehensive studies have been conducted on Artemisia absinthium L. (Asteraceae), according to Sharopov, et al.[2]. It has been widely used in North Africa, Asia, the Middle East, and Europe due to its therapeutic properties. It grows naturally on arid soil, rocky slopes, wastelands, and uncultivated desert soil. They are also used in the making of bitters, aperitifs, and alcohol. Most of these plants generate EO’s, some of which are utilized in the cosmetic and medicinal industries. On the other hand, the leaves of several species are used as culinary herbs.[3]

Seven species of the genus Artemisia (A. scoparia, A. monosperma, A. sieberi, A. judaica, A. abyssinica, A. herba-alba, and A. absinthium) can be found in Saudi Arabia. These herbs have been used worldwide in traditional medicine since ancient times. Some Artemisia species are valued for their fragrant leaves, which are used as culinary herbs.[1] With the increased side effects of medications, a lot of research is required to find alternatives whose benefits are scientifically proven and approved by private organizations, and Artemisia is considered one of them. But due to a lack of research related to its benefits and types found in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, it is necessary to get to know it more.

Methods

The search strategy of the current review is “Artemisia and Saudi Arabia, Biochemical Constituents, Pharmacological and Medical uses, and Nutritional Value.” The search was conducted via PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar. Also, full-text papers on the topic of Artemisia that have been published from 1970 to 2024 were included in this article review.

SPECIES OF THE ARTEMISIA THAT ARE FOUND IN SAUDI ARABIA

Artemisia scoparia

According to studies on ethnobotany, this plant is used for treating a wide range of ailments in Afghanistan, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Iran, and China, including ear pain, cardiovascular conditions, diabetes, hyperglycemia, liver, gallbladder, and digestive disorders, in addition to other inflammatory and infectious diseases. It is one of the most popular medicinal plants in many Asian countries.[4]

Artemisia monosperma

A. monosperma is a psammophytic shrubby perennial plant that grows in the East Mediterranean region and the Arabian Peninsula. It grows in the plains of the desert in Egypt, as well as on wadis that are either inland or coastal in the Mediterranean part of the country. Because of its anticancer, antimalarial, antispasmodic, antihypertensive, and antioxidant qualities, A. monosperma is regarded as medicinally valuable. Furthermore, A. monosperma’s insecticidal, larvacidal, and antibacterial properties are attributed to its bioactive constituents and EOs.[5]

Artemisia sieberi

A. sieberi is a well-known greenish-purple perennial shrub with alternate, hairy, and pedate leaves that can grow to a height of 50–150 cm. It grows in desert regions, valleys, and open fields. It’s a widely used medicinal herb in the Middle East, especially for treating gangrenous and infected ulcers, and for its anthelmintic and anti-malarial qualities. Numerous studies have supported the extracts’ hepatoprotective, nephroprotective, antioxidant, and antibacterial properties. A study discovered that in both in vitro and in vivo human umbilical vein endothelial cells, as well as chick chorioallantois membrane models, the ethanolic extract of A. sieberi suppresses angiogenesis.[6]

Artemisia judaica

For A. judaica L. (ArJ), the Mediterranean region, which includes Algeria, Libya, Egypt, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia, is a well-liked growing region. ArJ is found in the northern part of Saudi Arabia, encompassing the border between the Hail and Qassim areas. Many traditional uses of ArJ have been described, such as healing external wounds and treating snake and scorpion stings. In addition, ArJ has historically been used to treat a variety of other ailments, including gastrointestinal problems, impotence, hyperglycemia, cardiac problems, inflammatory diseases, arthritis, cancer, skin concerns, atherosclerosis, and enhancing immunity and vision. This plant is also used as herbal tea by Bedouins in Saudi Arabia and Egypt (Sinai) to cure digestive system disorders. Because of characteristics included in the chemical structure of the compound, ArJ showed biologically significant anti-diabetic, antioxidant, hepatoprotective, and anti-inflammatory effects in test animals. Because of characteristics innate to the chemical structure of the chemicals it contains, ArJ showed biologically significant anti-diabetic, antioxidant, hepatoprotective, and anti-inflammatory effects in experimental animals. Additionally, the plant showed only mediocre antibacterial efficacy against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. The plant extract may have anticancer and antioxidant properties, according to in vitro research.[7]

Artemisia absinthium

Wormwood, also known as Southern wood or A. absinthium L., is a fragrant and therapeutic herb that belongs to the Artemisia genus and family of plants. The aerial portions of A. absinthium have long been utilized in traditional medicine. It is a wild plant that thrives in Europe, North America, Asia, and much of northern Iran. Previous studies have demonstrated that A. absinthium possesses a wide range of pharmacological properties, including antibacterial, antiparasitic, antiplasmodial, antidiabetic, hepatoprotective, and neuroprotective effects. Furthermore, wormwood’s nicotinic and muscarinic receptor activation has been found to enhance cognitive function in homogenates of human cerebral cortical membranes.[8]

Artemisia herba-alba Asso

A. Herba alba Asso (AHA), Sheih or white wormwood, is a greenish-silver perennial plant that reaches a height of 20-40 cm. It is found over much of Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. As a chamaephyte, it bears new growth through buds every year that are carried near the ground. It has historically been used as a medication to treat external wounds, stomach disorders such as diarrhea, cramping in the abdomen, and fever, menstruation, and neurological issues.[9]

BIOCHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS REPORTED FROM THE SPECIES OF ARTEMISIA

Plants often develop phytochemical components as defenses against both biotic and abiotic stress. These bioactive substances derived from medicinal plants are crucial to the production of pharmaceuticals.

Phytochemical compounds of Artemisia species

Artemisia scoparia

Phytochemical compounds in leaf extract of A. scoparia were identified using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) are α-pinene (0.56%), ß-pinene (2.12%), ß-myrcene (0.1%), p-cymene (0.62%), limonene (1.18%), 1,8-cineol (0.31%), cis-thujone (0.11%), trans-thujone (0.53%), chrysanthenone (0.19%), 1-terpineol (0.14%), trans-pinocarveol (0.32%), camphor (4.25%), pinocarvone (0.12%), borneol (0.31%), 4-terpineol (0.18%), myrtenol (0.59%), acetate (0.19%), bornyl acetate (0.28%), methyl eugenol (0.73%), trans- caryophyllene (1.95%), (E)-ß-farnesene (0.5%), ar-curcumene (2.04%), ß-bisabolene (0.41%), δ-cadinene (0.74%), citronellyl butanoate (0.97%), spathulenol (48.33%), ledol (0.59%), humulene epoxide II (0.81%), epoxide (0.73%), isospathulenol (1.39%), diazinone (0.65%), hexahydrofarnesyl acetone (0.67%), palmitic acid (4.47%), and oleic acid (4.31%).[10]

Artemisia monosperma

Phytochemical compounds in leaf extract of A. monosperma were identified using GC-MS are undecane (16.196%) uses as anti-allergic and anti-inflammatory, 6-cten-1-ol, 3,7-dimethyl-, propanoate (10.949%), (-)-spathulenol (24.751%) uses as anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory, aromadendrene (11.297%) uses as antibacterial, allylidenecyclohexane (16.392%), hexadecanoic acid, methyl ester (9.352%) uses as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and decrease blood cholesterol, and 9,12,15- octadecatrienoic acid, (Z, Z, Z)- (11.062%) use as antimicrobial.[2]

Artemisia sieberi

Phytochemical compounds in leaf extract of A. sieberi were identified using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) are ndecane (9.235%) uses as anti-allergic and anti-inflammatory, 1-propanol, 3-bromo- (6.173%), cyclotetrasiloxane, octamethyl- (4.952%) use as antimicrobial activities, dodecane (34.461%) has biological activity as antibacterial activity and antioxidant, 1,3-cyclopentadiene, 1,2,5,5-tetramethyl- (5.344%) classified as antimicrobial activity, 1,3-cyclopentadiene, 5,5-dimethyl-1-ethyl- (24.011%) has antimicrobial activity, cyclopropane, 1-(1- hydroxy-1-heptyl)-2- methylene-3-pentyl- (10.903), and benzene, 2-[(tert- butyldimethylsilyl) oxy]-1-isopropyl-4- methyl- (4.922) has antibacterial activity.[2]

Artemisia judaica

Phytochemical compounds in leaf extract of A. judaica were identified using GC-MS are ndecane (1.232%) uses as anti-allergic and anti-inflammatory, lilac alcohol c (1.897%), 2- methylphenanthro[3,4-d] [1,3] oxazol-10-ol (12.230%), etaqualone (4.500%) use as anticonvulsant, 1,2- bis(trimethylsilyl)benzene (0.366%), cyclotrisiloxane, hexamethyl- (1.241%) uses as antimicrobial and antioxidant activities, tetrasiloxane, decamethyl- (34.026%) use antifungal activity, benzo[h]quinoline, 2,4-dimethyl- (6.185%), 4-methyl-2- trimethylsilyloxy- acetophenone (20.838%), and silicic acid, diethyl bis(trimethylsilyl) ester (17.484%) uses as antibacterial, antioxidant activity.[2]

Artemisia absinthium

Phytochemical compounds in leaf extract of A. absinthium were identified using GC-MS are α-thujene (0.15%), α-pinene (1.02%), sabinene (3.83%), ß-pinene (8.61%), p-cymene (1.12%), limonene (0.33%), 1,8-cineol (0.5%), γ-terpinene (0.18%), α-thujone (2.21%), ß-thujone (68.42%), hujanol <neo-3-> (2.24%), trans-pinocarveol (0.87%), 4-terpineol (0.59%), myrtenol (0.52%), carvotanacetone (0.83%), e-anethole (1.06%), ß-bourbonene (0.3%), (E)-ß-farnesene (0.45%), germacrene d (0.48%), ß-selinene (0.73%), caryophyllene oxide (0.71%), spathulenol (0.4%), α-epi-cadinol (1.29%), and α-cadinol (0.49%).[10]

Artemisia herba-alba Asso

Phytochemical compounds in leaf extract of A. herba-alba Asso were identified using GC-EIMS are pentane, 2-methyl- (0.09%), borneol (0.10%), amphor (97.61%), caryophyllene oxide (0.10%), -cadinol (0.09%), cholestan-3-ol, 2- methylene-, (3.beta.,5.alpha.)- (0.03), preg-4-en-3-one, 12,17- dihydroxy-20-nitrilo- (Preg-4-en-3-one, 12,17-dihydroxy-17-cyano-) (0.12%), 1-(3-hydroxy-3-methylpent -4-en-1-yl)-2,5,5,8a- tetramethyldecahydro naphthalen-2-ol(scareol) (0.04%), retinyl acetate (retinol acetate) (0.03%), androstane-3,17-dione (5 α -androstanedione or as 5 α -androstane-3,17-dione) (1.74%), cholest-22-ene-21-ol,3,5- dehydro-6-methoxy-, pivalate (0.02%), octadecane, 3-ethyl- 5-(2-ethylbutyl)- (0.01%), and geranyl isovalerate (trans-3,7-dimethyl-2,6- octadienyl isopentanoate) (0.01%).[11]

Phenolic compounds

Phenolic compounds are renowned antioxidants, but they also have other health and nutritional benefits for humans, including the prevention and treatment of several ailments. Phenolic chemicals, such as flavonoids and phenols, make up the bulk of phytochemical components in plants that have antioxidant properties.[2] The available phenolic compounds of Artemisia species have been shown in Table 1. The phenolic compounds of Artemisia species in Saudi Arabia contains appreciable amount of total antioxidant capacity especially A. sieberi. A. sieberi is the richest in micronutrients compared to other type but A. judaica and A. monosperma are considered to be the highest in total flavonoid content (TFC) compared to A. sieberi (24.67 ± 0.07mg QE g-1 DW), (20.39 ± 0.07mg QE g-1 DE) and (18.22 ± 0.14 mg QE g-1 DW), respectively.

Table 1: Composition of phenolic compounds in artemisia species.
Artemisia type Total phenolic flavonoid content (TPC) Total flavonoid content (TFC) Total antioxidant capacity (TAC) Total tannin content (TTC) Terpenoids (%)
Artemisia scoparia 18.7 mg g-1 QE[12] 3.77 GAE mg g-1 [13] 158.48 IC50 µg mL-1 [14] - -
Artemisia monosperma 120.33 ± 1.53 mg GAE g-1 DW[2] 20.39 ± 0.07 mg QE g-1 DE[2] 107.33 ± 2.27 AAE g-1 DW[2] 53.08 ± 0.28 mg TAE g-1 DE[2] 10.55 ± 0.72[2]
Artemisia sieberi 194.30 ± 0.84 mg GAE g-1 DW[2] 18.22 ± 0.14 mg QE g-1 DE[2] 262.08 ± 2.08 AAE g-1 DW[2] 78.98 ± 0.11 mg TAE g-1 DE[2] 13.28 ± 0.41[2]
Artemisia judaica 175.25 ±0.88 mg GAE g-1 DW[2] 24.67 ± 0.07 mg QE g-1 DE[2] 175.91±1.04 AAE g-1 DW[2] 69.24 ± 0.55 mg TAE g-1 DE[2] 11.62 ± 0.71[2]
Artemisia absinthium 43.04 ± 2.11mg GAE g-1 [15] 550.53 ± 45.93 mg QE g-1 [15] 85.24±0.07 mg GAE g-1 DW[8] 30.44 ± 1.08 mg GAE g-1 [15] -
Artemisia herba-alba (white wormwood) 131.48 ± 0.61 mg GAE g-1 [16] 17.72 ± 0.53 mg QE g-1[16] 114.52 IC50 µg mg-1 [17] 22.79 ± 0.41 mg GAE g-1 [16] -

More research is needed to determine Artemisia scoparia Total tannin content (TTC) also Artemisia herba-alba Asso, and Artemisia scoparia terpenoid.

Bioactive compounds

The available Bioactive compounds of Artemisia species have been shown in Table 2. The phenolic compounds of Artemisia species in Saudi Arabia contain an appreciable amount of total antioxidant capacity, especially A. sieberi. A. sieberi is the richest in micronutrients compared to other types.

Table 2: Composition of Bioactive compounds in artemisia species.
Artemisia Species A. scoparia A. monosperm A. sieber A. judaic A. absinthium A. herba-alba (white wormwood Uses
Artemisinin (ART) 0.16 mg g-1 DW[18] 1.92032± 0,00138 mg g-1 [2] 3.00533± 0.00176 mg g-1 [2] 2.49625± 0.00088 mg g-1 [2] 0.12 mg g-1 DW[18] 49 mg mL-1 [19]
Quercetin 18.7 mg g-1 QE[12] 10.33±1.19 µg g-1 [2] 58.38±1.67 µg g-1 [2] 15.31±1.17 µg g-1 [2] 1.29%[20] 1.6±0.2 ppm[21] uses as antioxidant activity and anti-inflammatory, and can inhibit Auto-immune disorders.[22] Quercetin is an important flavonol present in several plants, which is characterized by its anti-inflammatory, antihypertensive, vasodilator effects, and anti-obesity activities[8]
Gallic acid 26.7 mg g-1 GAE[12] 22.144±0.62 µg g-1 [2] 96.79±3.28 µg g-1 [2] 64.29±1.43 µg g-1 [2] 7.46±0.02 mg g-1 [23] 1.15 µg mg-1 [24] Research indicates that gallic acid reduces clinical arthritis scores and mitigates symptoms in the mouse model via regulating Th17/Treg cell imbalance and anti-inflammation[25]
Resveratrol 183.634 ppm[18] 3.13%[26] classified as anti-inflammatory and can exhibit promising therapeutic effects against inflammatory Lahlali bowel disease and rot colitis (100mg kg-1 per day)[27]
Tannic acid 26.31±1.84 µg g-1 [2] 262.09±1.42 µg g-1 [2] 162.70±1.43 µg g-1 [2] 420mg 100g-1 [28]

More research is needed to determine Artemisia scoparia, Artemisia judaic, Artemisia absinthium, and Artemisia sieberi resveratrol, as well as Artemisia herba-alba Asso and Artemisia scoparia tannic acid.

BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES REPORTED FROM THE SPECIES OF ARTEMISIA

Antioxidant activity

The sample solutions were combined with the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) in methanol solutions to create a 4 mL solution. At 515 nm, the spectrophotometer measured the absorbance of the solution containing the blank and positive control. A. scoparia EO’s increased scavenging action was indicated by the drop in DPPH solution readings. The amount of DPPH was decreased by EO isolated from A. scoparia. As a result, it was scavenged by A. scopria’s antioxidant activity.[12]

The high levels of antioxidant activity seen in Artemisia species (A. monosperma, A. sieberi, and A. judaica ) offer significant protection against a variety of ailments. Our data demonstrated that when the content of leaf extract grew, so did the extract’s ability. The highest concentration of several Artemisia species, 500 μg mL-1, considerably scavenges H2O2 in comparison to other values.[2]

An investigation was conducted on the correlation between antioxidant activity and bioactive substances. The principal chemicals (artemisinin, quercetin, tannic acid, gallic acid, total phenol, total tannin, and total flavonoid content) showed a high positive correlation with the antioxidants assay (DPPH and TCA).[2]

This A. absinthium plant’s extracts are shown to have potent antioxidant and antiradical properties. Studies both in vitro and in vivo have revealed the free radical scavenging activity of A. absinthium preparations.[8]

A. herba-alba gained notoriety for having a larger concentration of oxygenated monoterpenes, which gave it the ability to act as a radical scavenger. In comparison to ascorbic acid (2.54 μg mL-1 DPPH solution), the antioxidant activity of A. herba-alba and A. campestris oils, with IC50 values of 1.00 μL mL-1 DPPH solution and 2.08 μL mL-1 DPPH solution, respectively, was found to be too low. When compared to the synthetic antioxidant BHA (11 μg mL-1), the EO of A. herba-alba showed an IC50 value of 0.14 mg mL-1. The β-carotene bleaching method yielded an IC50 value of around 0.2 mg mL-1. Concurrently, the DPPH technique yielded IC50 values of 32.9 ± 0.036 and 154 ± 0.014 μg mL-1 for the ethyl acetate and A. herba-alba aqueous extract, respectively. Artemisia exhibited a high rate of IC50 20.64 ± 0.84 mg L-1 when measured using the DPPH free radical technique in comparison to numerous other plant extracts. According to DPPH, β-carotene bleaching, and ferric chelating tests, the methanolic extract of A. herba-alba showed IC50 values of 100, 524, and 1720 μg mL-1, indicating its potency. There were 372 μmol Fe2+ g-1 of ferric-reducing capacity. In that same study, the AAPH test revealed that A. herba-alba extracts had the highest antioxidant activity, measuring 34.78 ± 2.8 min L mg-1. The ethanolic extract of white wormwood demonstrated 50% anti-radical activity at a concentration of 0.8 mg mL-1. Furthermore, this extract showed a greater reducing power of Fe3+ (0.838 ± 0.2 mg mL-1) in comparison to ascorbic acid.[29]

The strong antioxidant activity of A. herba-alba’s EO, organic, and aqueous extracts can be explained by the presence of minor, major, and synergistic components as well as the simultaneous extraction of all or a portion of these compounds during the extraction process, either by evaporation or by maceration. A higher concentration of oxygenated sesquiterpenes and a lower concentration of oxygenated monoterpenes may be linked to reduced antioxidant activity. Sesquiterpene hydrocarbons and trace levels of oxygen terpenoids may be indicators of inadequate antioxidant activity in EO’s. It is well known that the presence of flavonoles, phenolics, and betacyanins in medicinal plant extracts confers high antioxidant effects.[29]

Anti-microbial activity

Antibacterial activity

Extracts of A. scoparia were used to assess their antibacterial activities on the growth of different species Gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli and Salmonella abony) and Gram-positive bacteria (Bacillus subtillus and Staphylococcus aureus), and only Gram-positive bacteria S. aureus and B. subtilis were sensitive to the examined extracts and most sensitive to A. scoparia diethyl ether extract (DE).[30]

Extracts from A. monosperma’s leaves, roots, and seeds considerably reduced Pseudomonas sp. growth, although Xanthomonas campestris pv. vesicatoria showed very little suppression. According to leaf, root, and seed extracts, the mean widths of the inhibitory zones for Pseudomonas sp. were 16.60, 12.00, and 20.30 mm, respectively. While treatment with seed extract produced an inhibition zone of 16.00 mm, the root and leaf extracts did not inhibit Xanthomonas campestris pv. vesicatoria.[31]

Artemisia monosperma has anti-microbial activity against Gram-negative bacteria (Klebsiella pneumonia, Proteus vulgaris, and Serratiamarcescens) and Gram-positive bacteria (Bacillus cereus, Micrococcus luteus, Micrococcus roseus, and Staphylococcus aureus).[33]

Extracts of A. sieberi were used to assess their antibacterial activities on the growth of different species (S. aureus, P. aeruginosa, B. subtilis, and E. coli). Aqueous extract of A. sieberi (20-40 µg mL-1) showed significant inhibition of the growth of S. aureus, B. subtilis, and E. coli, while the growth of P. aeruginosa was not affected, but aqueous extract of A. sieberi had less inhibitory effects than the ethanolic extract against S. aureus and B. subtilis.[33]

Extracts of A. judaica were used to assess their antibacterial activities on the growth of different species (Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumonia, Staphylococcus aureus, and Streptococcus pyogenes). As a result, the petroleum ether extract of A. judaica showed higher activity. The Streptococcus pyogenes was the most potent inhibitor, followed by Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis. Methylene chloride inhibits all except Escherichia coli and S. aureus. The ethyl acetate and methyl alcohol extracts inhibit all pathogenic bacteria at different rates.[34]

The antibacterial properties of A. absinthium extracts were evaluated by measuring their effects on the development of many pathogenic bacteria, including Salmonella enterica, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Listeria monocytogenes, and Staphylococcus aureus. All examined microorganisms showed antibacterial activity from A. absinthium butanol extract. The results of the chloroform extract were similar except for Pseudomonas aeruginosa. On Listeria monocytogenes, only the methanol extract exhibited antibiotic action.[35]

The only extracts of A. herba alba that exhibited antibacterial action against all tested harmful microorganisms were butanol and diethyl ether. Staphylococcus aureus demonstrated the lowest antibacterial activity against both plant extracts, whereas Salmonella enterica displayed the greatest.[35]

A. herba-alba Asso has anti-microbial activity against Acinetobacter baumannii, Bacillus cereus, Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella oxytoca, Klebsiella pneunomoniae, Proteus mirabilis, Proteus vulgaris, Salmonella enteritidis, and Staphylococcus aureus.[36]

Anti-fungal activity

A. scoparia has anti-fungal activity against Candida albicans, and diethyl ether (DE) and ethyl acetate (EE) showed high activity, while hexane (HE) exhibited low activity.[30]

The methanolic extract of A. monosperma showed 67% inhibitory activity against Candida albicans. The aqueous extract showed only 11.11% inhibitory activity against Candida albicans.[37]

Extracts of A. sieberi were used to assess their anti-fungal activities on the growth of different species (C. rhodotorula, C. parapsilosis, C. krusei, C. famata, and C. albicans). The results showed that the aqueous extract of A. sieberi affected the mycelial growth of C. famata and C. krusei at all concentrations (10, 20, and 40%). The mycelial growth of C. rhodotorula, C. parapsilosis, or C. albicans was not affected by any doses of the aqueous extract of A. sieberi. For the ethanolic extract of A. sieberi, there was considerable inhibition of the mycelial growth of C. famata and C. parapsilosis at all the concentrations (10, 20, and 40%). Unlike the aqueous extract, the mycelial growth of C. famata treated with the ethanolic extract was the most affected. The mycelial growth of C. rhodotorula, C. krusei, or C. albicans was not affected by any doses.[37]

Extracts of A. judaica were used to assess their anti-fungal activities on the growth of different species (Candida albicans, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus fumigatus, and Mucor spp). Petroleum ether extract had no antifungal activities on all the pathogenic fungi except Candida albicans. The methylene chloride extract inhibited the growth of Aspergillus fumigatus only, and the ethyl acetate extract did not affect both A. fumigatus and Mucor spp, but they hindered others. C. albicans and A. fumigatus were inhibited in their growth by methyl alcohol extract. No anti-fungal activities were discovered with the acetone extract on all the pathogenic fungi except Mucor spp.[34]

Artemisia herba-alba Asso has anti-fungal activity against both strains (Alternaria spp and Fusarium spp), especially at the concentration of 30% of Artemisia herba-alba aqueous extract. Moreover, Alternaria spp presented a sensitivity to the aqueous extract with a total inhibition.[38]

Anticancer properties of Artemisia in Saudi Arabia

The fact that the A. scoparia extracts showed both extremely significant actions and substantial levels of polyphenols is evident. Thus, it can be said that this plant is a highly significant contender for the creation of new anticancer drugs. The study’s findings substantially support the traditional usage of many of these plants. It’s particularly noteworthy to observe that TCM practitioners frequently utilize the significant herbs on this research’s short list in anticancer compositions.[13]

On human colon (DLD-1) and endometrium (ECC-1) cancer cells, A. absinthium extract exhibited cytotoxic action; however, it was shown that the extract had no cytotoxic impact on HEK-293 cells. But it was shown that raising the intracellular concentration of free radicals in cancer cells caused DNA damage, which in turn caused the cancer cells to undergo apoptosis.[39]

Our records show that the A. sieberi methanolic extract has shown anticancer activity against colon cancer (LoVo), breast cancers (MCF-7), and liver cancer (HepG2), (IC50: 92.5, 86.2, 62 µg mL-1), respectively.[40]

Our records show that the A. judaica crude extract exhibited anticancer qualities that were unique to human tumor cells and did not harm normal cells.[41]

A. herba alba has demonstrated potent cytotoxic action against human cancer cell lines, such as those from the colon, larynx, bladder, and myelogenous leukemia, by lowering cancer cell viability, damaging DNA, and inducing apoptosis.[42]

Anti- inflammatory

The plant Artemisia scoparia, sometimes referred to as jhahoo, has been used to treat inflammation, fibril disorders, and pain. Mice are given the Artemisia scoparia hydro-methanolic extract (ASHME), a preparation of the plant that helps to reduce their pain. When ASHME was administered as a single dosage, carrageenan-induced paw edema in mice was greatly decreased. These demonstrate the anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive properties of Artemisia scoparia hydro-methanolic extract. The existence of magnolioside and butyl ester is what gives jhahoo its anti-pyretic properties, and they are two forms of chlorogenic acid.[12]

Comparing the defatted ethanol extract of the aerial parts of A. monosperma Del. to the reference indomethacin, the former showed much greater anti-inflammatory effectiveness. Given its relatively high terpenoid content and documented anti-inflammatory effects, this amazing result may be explained. The antioxidant properties of the defatted ethanol extract are likely attributed to the combined effects of its phenolic constituents.[18]

A. Absinthium extract significantly inhibited the nitro-oxidative stress caused by acute inflammation by reducing Oxidative Stress Index (OSI), Total Oxidant Status (TOS), and Nitric Oxide (NO) as well as increasing Sulfhydryl or Thiol groups (SH). For A. absinthium 50%, this impact was superior to that of diclofenac.[37]

Our documents demonstrate that A. herb-alba extracts are effective anti-inflammatory agents at low concentrations (10 µg mL-1). Using either maceration or microwave extraction, all extracts (100, 50, 25, and 10 µg mL-1) decreased the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in white blood cells and the leukemic Jurkat cell line in a dose-dependent manner. PMA is a pro-inflammatory chemical. By measuring glutathione metabolism (glutathione reductase, transferase, and peroxidase) and protein-free thiols in Jurkat cells, the induction of the anti-inflammatory impact was assessed. After being cultured with A. Herba alba Asso (AHA) extracts ranging from 10 to 100 g mL-1 for 1 and 6 h, Jurkat cells showed a rapid cell response. It’s interesting to note that microwave extracts exhibited a greater induction, alterations that were sustained for 72 hours, and varied by five to ten times at early times. Conversely, in the leukemic Jurkat line, AHA extracts had a mild anti-proliferative impact. We concluded that AHA extracts, by ROS generation earlier, directly boost anti-inflammatory cell response. Subsequently, though, they were fiercely maintained without the help of ROS, indicating that the cellular metabolism had stepped in to enhance these effects.[17]

MEDICAL AND PHARMACOLOGICAL USES OF ARTEMISIA IN SAUDI ARABIA AND ANOTHER COUNTRY

Historically, A. absinthium, A. sieberi, and A. scoparia have been used as anthelmintics, antiparasitics, antihypertensives, and to treat various diseases, as well as tendinitis, earaches, bronchitis, and wound burns.[43]

Chinese medicine “Ing-Chan Hao” contains dried immature pieces of A. scoparia, which is used to treat jaundice. At night, the entire plant is cooked in water and used to get rid of intestinal parasites. It has been used on burns and for cleaning. Additionally, it is used to treat snake bites. It is also applied to ear pain, and it is inhaled for chest infections. It treats the sickness of the thorax. The aerial portions of this plant have been widely employed in Iranian medicine for their hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic, and anti-inflammatory properties.[12] Numerous pharmacological effects anti-atherogenic, antiviral, and neuroprotective properties, are exhibited by A. scoparia and its active ingredients.[44] Chinese traditional medicine uses the herb A. scoparia. It is made from dried A. scoparia (jhahoo) sprouts. This medication can lower body temperature, restore normal gallbladder function, encourage diuresis, and cure jaundice. This drug is a common ingredient in many conventional medicines. As an antitumor agent, it has also been employed in the treatment of cancer. This significant medicinal plant has been widely utilized to treat hepatitis, jaundice, and gallbladder irritation.[12]

Red-stem wormwood or A. scoparia is a source of ethereal oil or EO, which is used as a raw material to make the medication “Artemisol.” This medication is used to treat urolithiasis. Various A. scoparia components have been utilized to make medicinal products. The EO’s, flavonoids, and cumens have also been extracted from its seeds, young stems, aerial portions, and flowers. Several properties, including antibacterial, antiseptic, antipyretic, vasodilator, and diuretic, are exhibited by these extracted EO’s. It is used to treat hepatitis, jaundice, and burns in Pakistan. Its vapors are inhaled to treat chest ailments. Hepatitis, gall bladder inflammation, and jaundice have all been treated with EO’s of A. scoparia. One great mouthwash substitute is the plant’s flower heads.[12]

In Saudi Arabia, A. monosperma is commonly used in traditional medicine to treat parasitic worms, hypertension, and muscular spasms. It has been claimed that this plant’s EO’s and extracts contain a variety of biological properties, including insecticidal, antibacterial, and antimalarial properties. Through apoptosis, the anticancer efficacy of A. monosperma’s whole plant extract has recently been shown against 10 distinct human cancer cells.[46] Additionally, A. monosperma’s anticancer, antispasmodic, and antihypertensive qualities are thought to contribute to its therapeutic significance.[46]

A. sieberi’s blooming branches and leaves were cooked in regular saline to extract a solution that was then used topically to treat gangrenous ulcers, infectious ulcers, and inflammations. Furthermore, as a carminative, to reduce swelling and abscesses, and to stop leprosy. [47] In Middle Eastern traditional medicine, A. sieberi is used as an anthelminthic and to treat a variety of illnesses, including diabetes mellitus in Jordan. It has also been reported that A. sieberi is utilized as a natural remedy for gastrointestinal disorders and high blood pressure.[40]

The native Bedouins of Jordan’s North Badia region advocate A. judaica for its calming properties in traditional medicine. Additionally, stomachaches, cardiovascular conditions, diabetes, sexual dysfunction, gastrointestinal issues, and exterior wounds,[48] weak immune systems, impaired vision, and skin conditions[49] are also treated with it. This fragrant herb is also frequently used in various Arabic traditional remedies to treat inflammatory illnesses like diabetes, cancer, atherosclerosis, fungal infections, and arthritis.[48]

The biological properties and content of A. absinthium EO and extracts have been documented in several reviews. A. absinthium L. is used to treat gastrointestinal disorders in traditional Persian medicine. This gastroprotective effect is also examined by Kaoudoune et al.[8]

A. absinthium is used as a diuretic and to cure fevers, worms, stomachaches, and sepsis in traditional Turkish medicine. It is used in Chinese traditional medicine to treat fever and chills, cancer, diarrhea, and 201 neurodegenerative illnesses. It is also utilized in herbal remedies to treat a variety of illnesses, including heart palpitations, stomach discomfort, an increase in brain cortical membrane activity [50], hepatocyte enlargement, splenomegaly, hepatitis, gastritis, jaundice, wound healing, dyspepsia, indigestion, flatulence, anemia, and anorexia.[51] Additional benefits that it demonstrates to have include cytotoxic, hepatoprotective, neuroprotective, immunomodulatory, antioxidant, anti-fungal, antibacterial, anthelmintic, anti-ulcer, and anti-carcinogenic effects.[51]

A. herba-alba Asso is utilized as an anticancer, antispasmodic, antidiabetic, antibacterial, and antioxidant drug, and it treats hepatic and stomach diseases.[52] Since ancient times, this plant has been utilized in traditional medicine by several cultures as a hemostatic, analgesic, antimicrobial, antispasmodic, anti-inflammatory, hypocholesterolemic, and hypotriglyceridemic substance. This plant is used in folk medicine to treat a variety of respiratory and digestive issues, such as bronchitis, coughing, diarrhea, and stomachaches.[53] The infusion of this plant is used to treat wounds because it has further antibacterial and coagulant properties.[54]

Nutritional value of Artemisia in Saudi Arabia:

Macronutrients

The date recorded in Figure 1 revealed that the macronutrients in 100 g of aerial parts of some Artemisia species in Saudi Arabia contain appreciable amounts of carbohydrates and protein, especially Artemisia monosperma (9.13%), (8.4%), respectively. Furthermore, El Sayed et al. found fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) of the Artemisia monosperma Del contain unsaturated fatty acids (47.56%), which were slightly higher than that of the saturated ones (35.97%).[18] The major identified fatty acid in the mixture was the polyunsaturated ω-6, linoleic acid, followed by the saturated palmitic acid.[18]

Percentage contents of macronutrients in Artemisia species.
Figure 1:
Percentage contents of macronutrients in Artemisia species.

Micronutrients

In the ash of Artemisia, researchers determined nine micronutrients, shown in Table 3. The micronutrients in 100 g of aerial parts of some Artemisia species in Saudi Arabia contain appreciable amounts of calcium (Ca) and Sodium (Na), especially Artemisia monosperma and Artemisia judaica. Artemisia monosperma is the richest in micronutrients compared to other types.

Table 3: Composition of micronutrients in Artemisia species.
Artemisia type Phosphorus (P) (mg/100g) Potassium (K) (mg/100g) Sodium (Na) (mg/100g) Calcium (Ca) (mg/100g) Magnesium (Mg) (mg/100g) Copper (Cu) (mg/100g) Manganese (Mn) (mg/100g) Zinc (Zi) (mg/100g) Vitamin C (mg/ 100g)
Artemisia monosperma 1260[18] 1310[18] 1110[18] 3070[18] 356[18] 4.3[18] 12[18] 6.1[18] 30[18]
Artemisia judaica 2.30[57] 35.70[57] 93.80[57] 19.20[57] 0.11[58] -
Artemisia absinthium 0.417930[58] 0.01582[58] 0.1160225[58] 0.0262250[58] 0.0001472[58] 0.0003317[58] 0.0052564[58]

More research is needed to determine A. scoparia’ and A. sieberi’s nutrition facts, A. herba-alba Asso’s micronutrients, and A. absinthium’s macronutrients.

TOXICITY OF ARTEMISIA SPECIES IN SAUDI ARABIA

Artemisia species are allowed by the Saudi Food and Drug Authority, but should not be taken by women who are pregnant, think they may be pregnant, or intend to become pregnant.

Artemisia monosperma

Acute toxicity from oral ingestion of the A. monosperma Del. aerial parts total ethanol extract was studied. Because the tested extract’s measured LD50 was up to 6.1g kg-1 b. wt., the results showed that it may be safe within the range of oral supplied dosages.[18]

Artemisia judaica

Up to 5 g kg-1 b. wt., the aqueous methanol extract (AME) of A. judaica was shown to be non-toxic to mice. In addition, it demonstrates notable dose-dependent analgesic, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, hepatoprotective, and antioxidant effects.[55]

Artemisia absinthium

Previous studies have shown that the presence of thujone and its equivalents in A. absinthium can have some neurotoxic effects when used long-term. When a large dose of A. absinthium is administered, headaches, nausea, vomiting, cramping in the intestines, and disorientation can all result. EO of A. absinthium should not be used by expectant women, nursing mothers, allergy sufferers, hyperacidity sufferers, or those with peptic ulcers. The no effect level (NOEL) has been reported to be in the range between 5 and 12.5 mg kg-1 b. wt. day-1.[51]

Artemisia herba-alba Asso

Artemisia herba-alba Asso’ aqueous extract at the dosage up to 2 g kg-1 b. wt. will be toxic and can affect mainly the kidney tissues.[56]

Antidiabetic medications and Artemisia herba-alba Asso interact with one another: Artemisia herba-alba may lower blood glucose levels. Medication for diabetes is also used to reduce blood sugar. If you use diabetic medicine and Artemisia herba-alba together, your blood sugar levels may drop too low. Pay close attention to your blood sugar levels. It might be necessary to adjust the dosage of your diabetic medication.

Not measured the toxicity of Artemisia scoparia and Artemisia sieberi leaf extract aqueous.

Conclusions

Artemisia bioactive compounds have been shown to possess several biological effects, which provide scientific evidence for the use of herbs in folk medicine in many ancient communities, as well as contemporary medicine. The Artemisia species grown in Saudi Arabia showed many bioactive compounds, particularly gallic acid, which can be used as a drug to reduce clinical arthritis scores, mitigate symptoms; a variation in the species was observed. The leaf extract of A. herba-alba and A. scoparia exhibited a higher yield (26.7 mg g-1 GAE) of Gallic acid, our findings confirm the potential use of Artemisia species in medicine and pharmacy. Furthermore, the acquired results support the nutritional value and antioxidant characteristics of Artemisia species, which might lessen the impact of oxidative stress. Moreover, we concluded that the species of Artemisia grown in Saudi Arabia have different pools of bioactive compounds, macronutrients, and micronutrients. Further investigations in vivo toxicity and antibody evaluation of the Artemisia species in Saudi Arabia using animal experimentations, as well as preclinical and clinical trials, and evaluation of nutritional value are highly recommended for such an important plant.

Financial support and sponsorship

Nil.

Conflicts of interest

There are no conflicts of interest.

Use of artificial intelligence (AI)-assisted technology for manuscript preparation

The authors confirm that they have used artificial intelligence (AI)-assisted technology for assisting in the writing or editing of the manuscript or image creations.

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